MARRIAGE FORMS

Types of marriage 

A. Monogamy: It is a form of marriage when a single man marries a single woman or vice-versa and they settle down from a family. “Mono” means single and “Gamous” means marriage. Example – marriage among Kondh, Santhal, Oraon, etc.Monogamy is a response to balance sex ratio. As it also favors almost everyone a chance to have at least one spouse and also it provides effective sexual gratification for women and men. It also facilitates relatively easy rules of inheritance, succession and membership in kin group. Monogamy helps to maintain effective child rearing procedure and augment close emotional ties between parents and children. This form of marriage is vibrant in Indian Hindu Society.According to Malinowski, “Monogamy has been and will remain the only true type of marriage". Among the Hindus, until the passing of the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, a Hindu man was permitted to marry more than one woman at a time. Although permitted, polygyny has not been common among the Hindus. Only limited sections of the population like kings, chieftains, headmen of villages, members of the landed aristocracy actually practiced polygyny. We may say that those who had the means and the power to acquire more than one wife at a time were polygynous. The other important reasons for polygyny were the barrenness of the wife and or her prolonged sickness. Among some occupational groups like the agriculturists and artisans, polygyny prevailed because of an economic gain involved in it. Where women are self supporting and contribute substantially to the productive activity a man can gain by having more than one wife. Concerted efforts to remove this practice were made in the nineteenth century

Monogamy can be further understood as:

 i) Serial Monogamy: It is a sub-form of monogamy where a man gets married to another woman only after the death of the first wife. He can also go for 3rd, 4th, 5th wife if the previous wives are dead.

 ii) Non – Serial Monogamy: It is a sub-form of monogamy where a man gets married to a woman and stays with each other till he or she dies. There is no provision for second marriage.

B. Polygamy: It is a form of marriage when the marriage takes place between more than 2 individuals of opposite sex then it is known as polygamy. “Poly” means many and “Gamous” means marriage. Though popularly polygamy is understood to mean marriage with two or more wives, it properly designates marriage of either a man or woman with more than one mate. It is then further categorized as:

i) Polygyny: It is a sub-form of polygamy in which one man marries more than one woman at a time and stay together. Westermarck was of the opinion that there were certain basic reasons for the origin or emergence of Polygyny i.e, enforced celibacy, earlier aging of females, desire for variety, the desire for more children, social prestige and economic necessity.

Further, Polygyny is divided into: 

a. Serial/Sororal Polygyny: The co-wives or the multiple wives of the man are sisters. Example – Gond, Kharia.

b. Non- serial/ Non-Sororal Polygyny: The co-wives or the multiple wives of the man are not sisters.

(ii) Polyandry: John Lewis had provided a definition of polyandry. He says “It is a marriage in which a woman can have more than one husband at the same time”it is a sub-form of polygamy in which one woman gets to marry more than one man at a time and stay together. Westermarck advocated certain reasons for establishment of Polyandry i.e, poverty, bride-price, population control, disparity in numerical strength and the spirit of joint family. Admittedly, the practice of polyandry has been rare. Claims for its presence suggest that less than 1% of the people of the world’s tribes or other practically independent units have permitted it .In 1958, C.M. Abraham (1958: 107-8) has reported that in Central Travancore fraternal polyandry was practised by large number of groups like the Irava, Kaniyan, the Vellan and the Asari.

There is a wide prevalence of polyandry among the Todas of Nilgiris. We have some data to indicate that in the past, the tribe had marked excess of men over women, coupled with the practice of female infanticide. But this custom has been abandoned and now there is a progressive diminution of male preponderance. Among the Todas, when a man marries a woman it is understood that she automatically becomes the wife of his brothers, who normally live together. Even a brother born afterwards will be regarded as sharing his elder brother’s rights. In such cases of fraternal polyandry no dispute ever arises among the husbands, and the very notion of such a possibility is flouted by the Toda mind. When the wife becomes pregnant, the eldest of the husbands performs a ceremony with a bow and arrow by which legal fatherhood is conventionally established in this tribe, but all the brothers are reckoned to be the child’s fathers. The situation becomes more complicated when a woman weds several men who are not brothers and who as may happen, live in different villages. This is non-fraternal polyandry. When the husbands are scattered over several villages, the wife usually lives for a month with each in turn, though there is no absolute rule. In such cases, the determination of fatherhood in a legal sense is extremely interesting. For all social purposes that husband who performs the bow and arrow ceremony during the wife’s pregnancy establishes his status as father of not only the first child but of any children born subsequently until one of the husbands perform the requisite rite. Usually it is agreed that the first two or three children shall belong to the first husband, that at later pregnancy another shall establish paternal rights and so forth.R.H. Lowie in 1921 took an account of the statistics regarding the incidence of polyandry among the Todas. His conclusions are found relevant even today. He observes: What the Todas have done is to cling to polyandry and to temper it with polygyny, where formerly three brothers shared a single woman, they now tend to share two.

Further, Polyandry is divided into:

a. Fraternal/Adelphic Polyandry: The husbands of one wife are either brothers or related to each other through blood. Example – Toda, Khasa

b. Non – Fraternal/ Non- Adelphic Polyandry: The husbands of one wife are not brothers or are not related to each other through blood. Example – Nayars

c. Familial Marriage: It is kind of polyandry practiced by some communities in Tibet, where, the husbands of one wife are father and son.

C. Levirate Marriage: It is a type of marriage where a woman marries her deceased husband’s brother. Example – Among the tribes in Northeast Indian, Jewish Community. 

D. Sororate Marriage: It is a type of marriage where a man marries his deceased wife’s sister. Example - Bonda 

Further, Sororate marriage is categorized as Senior Sororate (where the man marries his deceased wife’s elder sister) and Junior Sororate (where the man marries his deceased wife’s younger sister)

E. Cross Cousin Marriage: It is the type of marriage where an individual is married to his or her cross-cousin. For example: Individual getting married to mother’s brother’s son/daughter, individual getting married to father’s sister’s son/daughter. This type of marriage is found in Kharia, Oraon

F. Parallel-cousin Marriage: It is the type of marriage where an individual is married to his or her parallelcousin. For example: Individual getting married to mother’s sister’s son/daughter, individual getting married to father’s brother’s son/daughter. This type of marriage is found in Kadar community.

Ways of Acquiring a mate

1. Marriage by capture

2. Marriage by Trial

3. Marriage by purchase

4. Marriage by Exchange

5. Marriage by service

6. Marriage by negotiation

7. Marriage by Elopement

8. Marriage by Intrusion

9. Marriage on Probation

a)Marriage by capture

This is a kind of marriage where a girl is taken away forcibly without her consent. Consent is not

taken even from her guardian or near relatives. In all primitive communities, this type of marriage

was once in vogue. Manu, the ancient lawmaker of Hindu society referred this type of marriage as

‘rakshasa vivaha’ and mentioned it as an approved mode of securing a wife among the Hindus.

Bhil,Gond,Ho,etc., tribes used to practice this widely. At present, this custom has been modernized anticipating penalty from court. Among the Kharias and Birhors, ceremonial capture takes place instead of real physical capture. The Youngman who is in love with a girl, suddenly put vermilion on the forehead of the girl in a public place and runs away. The girl becomes his wife after this. In the santal community, sometimes this sort of marriage is found to happen. Among the Gonds, gotup capture takes place. A mock fight is held between the two parties where the bride weeps and laments ceremonially. Mock capture is also practiced in Africa, Melanesia and china. In societies, where a surplus of females is found, groom capture takes place. From the Kambot people of New Guinea such practice has been noted.

(b)Marriage by trial

This is the kind of marriage where a young man has to prove his courage, bravery and physical strength before claiming a girl as wife. Such practice is widespread among the Bhils of

central India.\

(c)Marriage by purchase

This is the usual way of obtaining a wife in tribal societies. Here marriage demands a

payment for the bride, which is known as bride price. In Vedic age such practice was widespread

in Hindu society. Lower castes of Bengal still prefer marriages by purchase. Among the Veiphei

Kuki.and Rengama Nagas, this practice is quite common. Santal, Oraon, Toto, Lodha, etc., are not

exceptions.

(d)Marriage by exchange

It is a modified form of ‘marriage by purchase’. Here the bride price is compensated by

providing another bride in return. So that payment could not be claimed by any of the two

families. In Melanesia and Australia, a man’s sister is offered to his wife’s brother. The same used

tobe done among the Kulin Bramins of Bengal. Bhothias of Almora also show this type of

marriage in their community.

(e)Marriage by service

This is the marriage by considerable labour is offered by the bridegroom to the bride’s family

prior to marriage. A prospective groom goes to live in the house, which would be his father-inlaw’s

house and works for them. The duration of service varies in different group of people. It

may be a few days or a few months or few years. Among the Bunas of Bengal, the groom serves

the father-in-law for six to nine months. Veiphei Kukis take this period from two to three years.

For Bhils, it stands about seven years. Such a practice is also popular among Aimols, Purum and

Chiru Kukis of Manipur, among the Eskimos and the Ainus of Japan. Marriage by service is also

associated with matrilocal residence.

(f)Marriage by Negotiation

This type of marriage rests mutual consent of both the parties. The guardians here look for the

suitable match and negotiate thereafter. Sometimes go- betweens are recruited. Most of the tribes

and castes of India follow this way. Purum Kukis of Assam, Mundas and Hos of Chota Nagpur,

Baigas of Madhya Pradesh show maximum rigidity in the process.

(g)Marriage by Elopement

The tribes especially who keep dormitories for the youth indulge the adolescent boys and

girls to choose their mates. In this circumstance, if parent’s consent is not available, elopement

takes place. The boy elopes the girl and generally after a considerable period, couple is received

back to the family. Eloped couple when readmitted into the tribe, they have to accept a phase of

beating. A grand feast may or may not be arranged thereafter. Among the Oraon, this type of

marriage is tremendously popular. Among the Kurnais of south East Australia, about a dozen of

girls are eloped at a time.

(h)Marriage by Intrusion

This is the marriage, which solemnizes as per the desire of a girl. When a girl is willing to

marry a particular person who does not want her, she herself intrudes in his house and begins to

stay there without the permission of that house. Naturally they abuse her and the girl has to face

different modes of oppression. If she can overcome all those, marriage is sanctioned. Such a

strange way of marriage is known as ‘marriage by intrusion’. This is observed among the tribes

like Birhor and Ho.

(i)Marriage on probation

This is the marriage where a bridegroom is allowed to stay in the bride’s house a few days

before the marriage. During this period both the boy and the girl try to know each other very well.

If they think that their temperament is compatible to one another, then only they take the decision

regarding marriage. Otherwise they separate and for the second situation the boy has to

compensate the girl’s parents with cash payment. Such a way of getting mate is found in Kuki

community.

Marriage Structural –Functional Changes.

The marriage system had undergone radical changes especially after independence. Even

though the basic religious beliefs associated with marriage have not crumbled down, many of the

practices, customs, and forms have changed. The recent changes in the marriage system are briefly

discussed here.

1 Changes in the Form of Marriage: the traditional forms of marriages like polygamy

polygyny are not found any were, and they are legally prohibited in India. Only monogamous

marriages are universally practiced.

2 Changes in the Aim and purpose of Marriage: In traditional societies the primary

objective of marriage is ‘dharma’ or duty; especially among Hindus. But today the modern

objective of marriage is more related to ‘life-long companionship’ between husband and wife.

3 Changes in the Processes of mate selection

The following areas of mate selection we can see significant changes today

(I)Field of selection has become very vide. It is wide enough to include inter religious and

inter-caste marriages.

(ii)Party to selection. Parents do not take an active role in the selection of life partners of

their children. The practice of young men and women selecting their life partners by themselves is

becoming popular today.

(iii) Criteria of selection. Much importance is given to individual interests, preferring and

considering rather than to family considerations. This trend is reflected in the increase in the

instance of love marriages.

4)change in the Age at marriage Child marriages are not found today. As per the present

marriage act a boy below 21 years and a girl below 18 years cannot marry. pre-puberty marriages

have thus given place to post-puberty marriages.

5) Changes in the stability of marriage Legislative provision for divorce has virtually

affected the stability of the marriage. The legislative provisions for divorce and widow remarriage

have undermined the importance of the age old values related to marriage. The concept of equality

of sex has also affected the stability of marriage ties.

6) Changes in the Economic aspect of Marriage The Practice of paying dowry is

associated with Marriage. This practice has grown into a big evil today. Bride’s parents are

compelled today to pay a huge amount of money as dowry. This practice made marriage as a

costly affair. Marriages are often settled only on considerations of dowry.

Marriage ceremony is also becoming a costly affair since huge amount of money is spend

lavishly on decorations, processions, video, music and so on.

7) An Increase in the Instances of Divorce and Desertion. The instances of divorce and

desertion are on the increase.

Though these new trends are observed today the importance of marriage has not diminished. it is still universally practiced. Though its sanctity is affected a little, It is not reduced to the level of a mere civil contract in Indian society

For  any suggestions and queries ,feel free to contact on: 

E-mail : anthrobasics@gmail.com

Instagram: anthroclan_india

 About the author :

Abhijay,  an  Anthropologist by training is a PhD scholar, a University level educator and freelance  developmental policy consultant.  He have cleared  examinations like UGC-JRF and ICMR JRF for research studies.