Secularism ; Definitions and Characteristics

Definitions of Secularism 

1. Peter Berger; “the process by which sectors of society are removed from the domination of religious institutions and symbols"

2. Andrew Copson’s 2017 book ‘Secularism – Politics, Religion, and Freedom’ defines it using principles from the work of French historian and sociologist of secularism, Jean Baubérot:

 1) separation of religious institutions from the institutions of the state, and no domination of the political sphere by religious institutions;

 2) freedom of thought, conscience and religion for all, with everyone free to change their beliefs, and manifest their beliefs, within the limits of public order and the rights of others; 

3) no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of their religion or non-religious worldview, with everyone receiving equal treatment on these grounds.

3. Dietrich Bonheoffer;  Secularism lays emphasis on this world rather than the supernatural, behaviour rather than belief, freedom rather than obedience and a bold maturity rather than conservatism.

4. Wilfred Cantwell Smith; "a secular state is a form of state so contrived as to win and hold and deserve the loyalty and warm allegiance of any citizen of whatever religion or of none. “

5. Webster's Third new International dictionary, “system of social ethics based upon a doctrine that ethical standards and conduct should be determined exclusively with reference to the present life and social well being without reference to religion.

       It is a normative doctrine that seeks to realise a secular society, i.e., one devoid of either inter-religious or intra-religious domination. “secularism” was coined by G. J. Holyoake in 1851 to describe a socio-politico movement pioneered by him and others which affirmed the worth of mundane existence. Soon afterwards, the term began to be used to connote five important ideas:

        1. The rule of reason,

        2. Separation of ethics from religion,

        3. Concept of knowledge as a product of reason, not faith,

        4. Liberty of expression and 

        5. Participation in the struggle for making the world a better place to live in.
     However, by the early nineteenth century, the meaning of the term changed radically. Instead of differentiating the worldly from the religious, it vouched for the well-being of human society without any sanctions from the supernatural. However, in a more refined understanding, secularism as an ideology is believed to have emerged from the dialectic of modern science and Protestantism, rather than from a simple renunciation of religion and the rise of rationalism.
    

      §  The term “Secular” means being "separate" from religion or having no religious basis.

§  A secular person does not owe his moral values to any religion. His values are the product of his rational and scientific thinking.

§  Secularism means separating religion from political, economic, social and cultural aspects of life, religion is treated as a purely personal matter.

§  It emphasized dissociation of the state from religion and full freedom to all religions and tolerance.

§  It also stands for equal opportunities for followers of all religions and no discrimination and partiality on the grounds of religion.

Secularism as a philosophical doctrine is not necessarily the same as atheism. It is also an attitude of mind that actively seeks a rational understanding of life’s phenomena and resists transcendental explanations or beliefs based on authority. Terms like ‘secularism’, ‘secular’ and ‘secularization’ are confusing and often interchangeably used. No doubt they are inter-related, there are some prominent differences amongst them.

   Secularism’ is usually understood as an ideology, ‘secularization’ is seen as a process of a decline in religious activities, beliefs, etc. and ‘secular’, being an adjective, is often contrasted with religion. In other words, ‘secularism’ emphasises ideological aspect, ‘secularization’ emphasises the processual aspect and ‘secular.’ emphasises political-juridical.    

       According to T. N. Madan (1991), secularism is a ‘multivocal’ concept: it means different things to different people. Predominantly, it stands for two different things, a policy and an ideology. In fact, these two are the popular connotations of the term secularism. When we look at secularism as a policy of the State, the latter is seen as being equidistant from all religious communities. Hence there is no State religion as such. But besides being the State policy, secularism should also successfully become the ideology of the people. If this fails to happen, then a secular State is highly problematic in a communally divided society.

The discrimination of one community or its members by another community or its members on account of their religious identity are the instances of religious persecution, and they reflect inter-religious domination. Secularism is the first and foremost doctrine that opposes all such forms of inter-religious domination. Separation, loss and sufferings are endemic to the human condition, while a large part of our suffering is man-made and hence eliminable, at least some of our suffering is not man-made. Religion, art and philosophy are responses to such sufferings. Secularism too accepts this, and therefore, it is not anti-religious.  As Secularism is opposed to all forms of institutionalised religious domination, it challenges not merely inter-religious domination but intra-religious dominations. It (Secularism) promotes freedom within religions and promotes equality between, as well as within religions.

How state should prevent such domination by any religious group?

1. State should be non-theocratic:- A state must not be run by the heads of any particular religion. A state governed directly by a priestly order is called theocratic. For example- the Papal States In Europe in the Medieval period, the Taliban controlled states in recent times. So, here states lacking separation between religious and political institutions are known for their hierarchies and oppressions and reluctance to allow freedom of religion to members of other religious groups. For this, states should separate religion at the primary level, but this is not sufficient.

2.   States should have no formal, legal alliance with any religion:- Many non-theocratic states have a close alliance with a particular religion. For example- England in the 17^th century was not run by a priestly class but clearly favoured the Anglican Church and its members. England had an established Anglican religion, which was the official religion of the states. Today Pakistan has an official state religion, namely Islam. Such regimes may leave little scope for internal dissent on religious equality.

If there is a sort of secularization, in what does it consist?

         1. An increasing pluralism in world-views and sacred canopies

         2. The loss of monopoly control by the Churches over 'official' models of religion in society and even  the individual religious impulse

           3. The rise of individual autonomy in religious matters

          4. The privatization of religion
5.      5. Greater institutional autonomy of non-religious domains 

Mohanty (1989) differentiates between hegemonic secularism and democratic secularism. In India, he asserts, the State resorts to a hegemonic kind of secularism by strengthening its power grip. It only serves the interests of the ruling forces by manipulating various religious groups.  Democratic secularism, on the other hand, is part of a wider struggle against socio-political domination. It is a democratic struggle against class, caste and ethnic domination (ibid). This implies that reason and rationality are important in assessing the role of religious institutions in society's socio-political domains. This kind of rationality is indeed the base of a secular outlook; however, this rationality should not be dictated by the rulers of the State, often done for luring their prospective vote banks or for maintaining a status quo and thereby avoiding a confrontation.

Rajiv Bhargava's typology of secularism

•A) Hyper-secularism; absolute separation or exclusion of religion from the state.

•B) Ultra-procedural; separation based on rational procedure and rules.

•C) Contextual; non-absolutist, a non-sectarian, principled separation between religion and state. Life of dignity for all.

•Contextual secularism is enshrined in practice, but Hyper-substantive and ultra procedural followed in practice.

                                        Features of secularism 

 1.   1. Secularism is a system of social organization and education that believes that religion has no part to play in the problems and events of everyday life.

 2.  2. A culture is seen as secular when its acceptance is based on rational and utilitarian considerations rather than on reverence and veneration.

3.    3. A secular society engenders in or elicits from its member's readiness to change customary orientation towards or definition of values regarded as essential in that society. 

       4. Secularism on the part of the individual means a rational state of mind which refuses to recognize the arbitrary authority of any individual or any book. 

5. In the context of 'state’ or 'society', secularism means an endeavour on the part of the state or society to modernize the societal values and thus a policy of not being Broadly speaking, secularism is a movement of thought, which aims to improve the temporal welfare of the people on rational and ethical grounds independently of religious considerations.

Philosophy of Indian Secularism

Sarva Dharma Sambava is the Indian version of secularism. In the Indian context, Thomas (1991) asserts that secularism as a political philosophy emerged in the national independence movement. Further, the conceptual understanding of secular State in Indian context comprises two tenets: firstly, the fundamental civil right of religious liberty while safeguarding religious and cultural pluralism; and secondly, emphasising the modern democratic ideals of freedom, equality and justice. The concept of Indian secularism envisages a measure of the secularisation of Indian society to form a national community on common social ideals.  

§  The term ‘secularism’ is akin to the Vedic concept of ‘Dharma nirapekshata’, i.e. the indifference of the state to religion.

§  This model of secularism is adopted by western societies where the government is totally separate from religion (i.e. separation of church and state).

§  Indian philosophy of secularism is related to “Sarva Dharma Sambhava” (literally, it means that the destination of the paths followed by all religions is the same, though the paths themselves may be different) equal respect to all religions.

§  This concept embraced and promoted by personalities like Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi is called ‘Positive secularism’ that reflects the dominant ethos of Indian culture.

§  India does not have an official state religion. However, different personal laws - on matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, alimony varies with an individual's religion.

§  Indian secularism is not an end in itself but a means to address religious plurality and peacefully coexist with different religions.
Rajeev Bhargava has explained that secularism in the Indian setting calls for the maintenance of a “principled distance” between state and religion. This does not mean that the state cannot intervene in religion and its affairs but that any intervention should be within the limitations prescribed by the Constitution. Sometimes this might even call for differential treatment across religions, which would be valid so long as such differentiation, as Mr Bhargava explains, can be justified because it “promotes freedom, equality, or any other value integral to secularism.

Secularism as a philosophy of the Indian constitution 

There is clear incorporation of all the basic principles of secularism into various provisions of the constitution. The term ‘Secular’ was added to the preamble by the forty-second Constitution Amendment Act of 1976, (India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic). It emphasizes the fact that constitutionally, India is a a secular country which has no State religion. And that the state shall recognize and accept all religions, not favour or patronize any particular religion.

The preamble of the Indian constitution reflects the philosophy of the constitution starts “WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure all its citizens………………………… ” Though the term ‘secular’ was not initially mentioned in original constitution, but the Indian constitution has always been secular. As we have already discussed how Indian secularism differs from a western concept. So, in India, it is not mutual exclusion; rather, it is principled distance, a complex idea that allows the state to be distant from all religions so that it can intervene or abstain from interference, depending upon which of these two would better promote Liberty, equality and social justice.

Constitution reinforces and reinvents forms of liberal individualism through Article- 26, 28, 19, etc. Constitution upholds the principle of social justice without compromising individual liberties. The constitutional commitment to the caste-based affirmative action program shows how much ahead of India as compared to the other nations (as in the US, it began after the 1964 civil rights movements). Against the background of inter-communal strife, the constitution upholds its commitment to group rights (the right to express cultural particularity). So, our forefathers/ framers of the constitution were more than willing to face the challenges of what has to be known as multiculturalism. The question of secularism is not one of the sentiments but one of the laws. The secular objective of the state was expressed by inserting the word ‘Secular’ in the preamble by the 42nd constitutional amendment act, 1976. Secularism is a basic structure of the constitution.

Fundamental rights (Article 12 to 35) guarantees and promotes secularism. Right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and right to constitutional remedies are such six fundamental rights.
A secular attitude or attitude of impartiality towards all religions is secured by the constitution under several provisions. (Article 25 to 28).

Firstly, There shall be no ‘state religion’ in India. The state will neither establish a religion nor confer any special patronage upon any particular religion. It follows from this;
1.The state will not compel any citizen to pay taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution mentioned under Article-27 of the Fundamental Rights.
It should be noted that the government of India provides Hajj Subsidy for pilgrimage, and this issue was contested in the supreme court for alleged violation of article 14 (equality), Article 15 (non-discrimination),  Article 27 But SC upheld the constitutionality of hajj subsidy, saying that Article 27 would be violated if a substantial part of the entire income tax collected in India, or a substantial part of the entire central excise or the customs duties or sales tax or a substantial part of any other tax collected in India was to be utilized for promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination. In other words, suppose 25 per cent of the entire income tax collected in India was utilized for promoting or maintaining any particular religion or religious denomination that would be violative of Article 27 of the Constitution.

No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly provided by state funds. Even though religious instruction is totally banned in state-owned educational institutions, in other denominational institutions(as recognized by or receiving aid from the state) it is not fully prohibited, but it must not be imposed upon people of other religions without their consent (Article 28).

Secondly, every person is guaranteed the freedom of conscience and the freedom to profess, practice and propagate his own religion, subject only-

1.    To restrictions imposed by the state in the interests of public order, morality and health. So, that the freedom of religion may not be abused to commit crimes or anti-social acts. For example- to commit the practise of infanticide, etc.

2.    To regulations or restrictions made by the state relating to any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practise, but do not really concerned to the freedom of conscience.

3.    To measure for social reform and for throwing open Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus.

Subject to the above limitations, a person in India shall have the right not only to entertain any religion but also to practise the observances dedicated by such belief and to preach his views to others (Article 25).

Thirdly, not only is there the freedom of the individual to profess practise and propagate his religion, there is also the right guaranteed to every religious group or domination –

1.    To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;

2.    To manage its own affairs in matters of religion;

3.    To own and acquire movable and immovable property; and

4.    To administer such property in accordance with the law (Article 26)

It is to be noted that this guarantee is available not only to the citizens of India but to all persons, including aliens.

  

Threats to Indian Secularism 

§  While the Indian Constitution declares the state being absolutely neutral to all religions; our society has steeped in religion.

§  Mingling of Religion and Politics, mobilising voters on the grounds of primordial identities like religion, caste, and ethnicity, has put Indian secularism in danger.

§  Communal politics operates through communalization of social space, spreading myths and stereotypes against minorities, attacking rational values, and practising divisive ideological propaganda and politics.

§  Politicisation of anyone the religious group leads to the competitive politicisation of other groups, resulting in inter-religious conflict.

§  One of the manifestations of communalism is communal riots. In the recent past, communalism

has also proved to be a great threat to the secular fabric of Indian polity.

§  Rise of militant Nationalism in recent years have resulted in mob lynching on mere suspicion.

§  In addition to this, forced closure of slaughterhouses, campaigns against ‘love jihad’, reconversion or Ghar- wapsi (Muslims being forced to convert to Hinduism), etc., reinforces communal tendencies in society.

§  Islamic fundamentalism or revivalism pushes for establishing Islamic State based on sharia law, which directly conflicts with conceptions of the secular and democratic state.

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